Rare earths explained
What are rare earth elements?
Rare earth elements are the 15 lanthanides plus scandium and yttrium: 17 metals with near-identical chemistry that are hard to separate. World mine output was 390,000 tonnes of oxide equivalent in 2025, 69% of it from China, and magnets are the largest use.
USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026 · reviewed 28 October 2026
The 17 rare earth elements
| Element | Class | Main uses | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Scandium Sc · 21 | Neither group | Aerospace aluminium alloys, solid oxide fuel cells (USGS) | see table |
| Yttrium Y · 39 | Heavy | Ceramics, phosphors, YAG lasers (USGS) | see table |
| Lanthanum La · 57 | Light | Refining catalysts, optical glass, batteries | see table |
| Cerium Ce · 58 | Light | Glass polishing, catalysts, glass additives | see table |
| Praseodymium Pr · 59 | Light | NdFeB magnets (with neodymium), pigments | $182/kg |
| Neodymium Nd · 60 | Light | NdFeB permanent magnets | $174/kg |
| Promethium Pm · 61 | Light | No commercial use; radioactive | see table |
| Samarium Sm · 62 | Light | Samarium-cobalt magnets | see table |
| Europium Eu · 63 | Light | Red phosphors in lighting and displays | see table |
| Gadolinium Gd · 64 | Heavy | MRI contrast agents, neutron absorbers | see table |
| Terbium Tb · 65 | Heavy | High-temperature magnets, green phosphors | $4,594/kg |
| Dysprosium Dy · 66 | Heavy | High-temperature NdFeB magnets | $2,166/kg |
| Holmium Ho · 67 | Heavy | Lasers, magnets, nuclear control | see table |
| Erbium Er · 68 | Heavy | Fibre-optic amplifiers, lasers | see table |
| Thulium Tm · 69 | Heavy | Medical lasers, portable X-ray sources | see table |
| Ytterbium Yb · 70 | Heavy | Fibre lasers, stainless-steel additives | see table |
| Lutetium Lu · 71 | Heavy | PET scan scintillators, catalysts | see table |
Light = lanthanum to europium; heavy = gadolinium to lutetium plus yttrium. Scandium sits in neither group; see heavy vs light rare earths. Prices link to the live metal reference price (27 October 2026) where we have one; all 17 oxide prices are on the rare earth price table. Promethium has no stable isotope and no commercial market.
Why they are called rare, and why that is misleading
Rare earths are relatively abundant in the Earth's crust. USGS says the difficulty is that minable concentrations are less common than for most other mineral commodities, and that the elements are chemically alike, so separating them takes many repeated extraction steps. World rare earth reserves exceed 75 million tonnes of oxide, 44 million of them in China.
Light and heavy rare earths are different markets
Light rare earths (lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, neodymium) make up most of every ore and sell as oxide at $1 to $74 per kg in 2025 (USGS annual averages). Heavy rare earths occur in small fractions and sell at up to $1,010 per kg (terbium oxide). The split matters for policy: China's April 2025 licences cover samarium, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, lutetium, scandium and yttrium, mostly heavy elements with no non-Chinese commercial supply at scale.
What they are used for
Magnets are the leading global end use of rare earths; catalysts lead in the United States (USGS). Other uses are batteries, ceramics and glass, metallurgical alloys and polishing. The neodymium-iron-boron (NdFeB) magnet, with dysprosium and terbium added for heat resistance, drives demand for four of the elements, and is the reason heavy rare earth licensing affects EV and wind supply chains.
From mine to magnet
- Mining of bastnaesite, monazite, xenotime or ion-adsorption clay. Mountain Pass, California, produced 51,000 tonnes of oxide-equivalent concentrate in 2025.
- Separation into individual oxides, the bottleneck outside China, especially for heavy elements.
- Metal and alloy making, then magnet manufacturing. US imports of rare earth compounds and metals rose 169% in 2025, and net import reliance for compounds and metals was 67%.
Who mines rare earths
| Country | 2025e, t REO | Share |
|---|---|---|
| China | 270,000 | 69% |
| United States | 51,000 | 13% |
| Australia | 29,000 | 7% |
| Burma | 22,000 | 6% |
| World | 390,000 | 100% |
Source: USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026; shares calculated. Reserves by country are on the reserves page; how Chinese controls affect trade is on the export-control timeline.
Rare earth elements: frequently asked questions
What are the 17 rare earth elements?
Scandium, yttrium and the 15 lanthanides: lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, neodymium, promethium, samarium, europium, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, thulium, ytterbium and lutetium.
Are rare earth elements actually rare?
No. USGS describes them as relatively abundant in the Earth's crust; what is uncommon is a concentration that can be mined economically, and separating the elements is difficult.
Which countries produce the most rare earths?
China produced 270,000 tonnes of oxide equivalent of the 390,000 tonnes mined worldwide in 2025 (69%). The United States produced 51,000 t, Australia 29,000 t and Burma 22,000 t.
What is the difference between light and heavy rare earths?
Light rare earths (lanthanum to europium) are most of every ore and cheap. Heavy rare earths (gadolinium to lutetium and yttrium) are scarce, expensive and supplied almost entirely through Chinese separation.
Which rare earths are used in magnets?
Neodymium and praseodymium form the magnet alloy; dysprosium and terbium are added for heat resistance; samarium is used in samarium-cobalt magnets.
Sources
- U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Rare Earths
- U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Rare Earths (Heavy)
- China Ministry of Commerce (MOFCOM), Announcements 18 of 2025 and 70 of 2025